Week 15 Skepticism

Recap

Nietzsche had strong influence over Heidegger, Arendt, Foucault, etc.

Michel Foucault (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Skepticism

Seealso

Enumerating Types of Skepticism:

1. Global Skepticism:

  • This is the most radical form of skepticism, doubting the possibility of knowledge altogether.

  • Cartesian Skepticism: Inspired by Descartes' "Meditations," this form focuses on the possibility of deception by an evil demon or by our own senses, challenging the reliability of our perceptual and cognitive faculties.

  • Pyrrhonian Skepticism: Named after the ancient Greek philosopher Pyrrho, this approach emphasizes the suspension of judgment and the avoidance of dogmatic assertions. It seeks to achieve a state of "ataraxia" (tranquility) by avoiding the anxieties and frustrations associated with the pursuit of unattainable knowledge.

2. Local Skepticism:

  • This form targets specific domains of knowledge while leaving others intact.

  • External World Skepticism: Doubts the possibility of knowing anything about the external world beyond our own experiences. This is often motivated by arguments from illusion, hallucination, or the underdetermination of theory by evidence.

  • Other Minds Skepticism: Questions the possibility of knowing the mental states of others, given that we only have access to their external behavior. This is often associated with the "problem of other minds."

  • Moral Skepticism: Doubts the possibility of objective moral truths or knowledge, arguing that moral judgments are ultimately subjective, relative, or culturally determined.

  • Religious Skepticism: Questions the possibility of knowing the existence or nature of God or other religious truths, challenging the validity of religious experiences, sacred texts, or theological arguments.

3. Specific Skeptical Positions:

  • These are targeted skeptical positions focusing on particular concepts or areas of knowledge.

  • Inductive Skepticism: Doubts the validity of inductive reasoning, arguing that we cannot reliably infer general principles or laws from limited observations. This is often associated with Hume's "problem of induction."

  • Memory Skepticism: Questions the reliability of our memories, arguing that we cannot be certain that our memories accurately represent past events. This is often motivated by the possibility of false memories, distortions, or confabulations.

  • Testimony Skepticism: Doubts the reliability of knowledge acquired from others through testimony, arguing that we cannot be certain that others are telling the truth or that their knowledge is accurate.

4. Methodological Skepticism:

  • This is not skepticism about specific beliefs or domains of knowledge, but rather a methodological approach to inquiry that employs doubt as a tool for testing and evaluating beliefs.

  • Cartesian Doubt: This method, famously used by Descartes, involves systematically doubting all beliefs until one arrives at an indubitable foundation for knowledge.

  • Scientific Skepticism: This approach emphasizes the importance of evidence, critical thinking, and the testing of hypotheses. It encourages the questioning of established beliefs and the pursuit of alternative explanations.

This list is not exhaustive, and there are many other forms and variations of skepticism. It is important to distinguish between skepticism as a philosophical position and skepticism as a healthy attitude of critical inquiry. While philosophical skepticism challenges the possibility of certain knowledge, methodological skepticism can be a valuable tool for evaluating beliefs and improving our understanding of the world.

Epitomizing figures

  1. David Hume
  2. Emmanuel Kant: Critique of Pure Reason
    1. Cogito, ergo sum: The principle ‘cogito, ergo sum’, or any equivalent formula, by which Descartes claimed to establish his own existence as a thinking being from the fact of his thinking or awareness; loosely, conscious awareness or subjectivity.
    2. The subject that does the behavior of "thinking"
  3. G.E. Moore: Proof of an External World
    1. Neo-Moorean Responses to Skepticism
      1. Skeptical argument
        1. If I know that p, the I know that skeptical scenario s regarding p is not the case.
        2. I do not know that skeptical scenario s regarding p is not the case.
        3. Hence, I do not know that p.
      2. Anti-skeptical argument
        1. If I know that p, then Ii know that skeptical scenario s regarding p is not the case.
        2. I know that p.
        3. Hence, I know that skeptical scenario s regarding p is not the case.
  4. G.E. Moore: Certainty